History of Nursing free essay sample

The topic of this paper is to identify historical events in nursing. This topic grasps my attention because I am on the track to become a nurse, and feel I need to know about the history of nursing. The purpose of this paper is to inform the reader about historical highlights in nursing. In The Beginning American Nurses Association defines nursing as the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, communities, and population( Potter,P. Perry, A. 2005,1-5). Thus making nursing dynamic and ever changing. However, when nursing first began it was completely different than modern day nursing. Nursing was not dynamic but was a domestic art passed down from mother to daughter. ( Stanley, Judith, M. ,(1996)) Nursing is documented as far back as 300 AD as the first time women started nursing and caring for oth ers (Potter,P. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Nursing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page , Perry, A. 2005,1-5). Wet nurses or dry nurses was the title of nurses in the 14th century that took care of infants, and this was the primary role of the nurse during these times. ( History of Nursing: Birth of the Nurses) Florence Nightingale is the founder of modern nursing and first nursing philosophy. Her philosophy was built off health maintenance and restoration in Notes on Nursing: What It Is and What It Is Not. ( Potter,P. , Perry, A. 2005,1-5) Her philosophy was based Offa spiritual philosophy, developed in her adolescence and adulthood, and reflected the changing needs of society. ( Potter,P. , Perry, A. 2005,1-5) Nightingale saw nursing as being in charge of somebodys health a state to be free of disease or to recover from disease. ( Potter,P. , Perry, A. 2005,1-5) She also started an organized program for all trained nurses, the Nightingale Training School for Nurses as St. Thomas Hospital in London. ( Potter,P. , Perry, A. 2005,1-5) In 1633, Louise de Marillac founded Sisters of Charity. This was the first educational program to be affiliated with a religious nursing order (Potter,P. , Perry, A. 2005,1-5). In fact, when the Civil War began the only professional nurses in the Bible belt were affiliated with the Sisters of Charity and Sisters of Mercy. These nurses were Roman Catholic nuns. The only other women that associate themselves with the medical field would be the midwives. At this time in history nursing was part of the home life and was the womans Job to complete. To be quite honest that is how society at the time thought nursing should be. (Parker, Sandra,V. , 1993) A soldier during the civil war wrote to his wife and said Do no think of coming here as a nurse. It is no place for a young and inexperienced lady You cannot imagine the labor you would have to undergo, and disgusting much of it is( Parker, Sandra,V. , 1993). This typical thought did not stop the women longing to care, help, and be a nurse to the injured soldiers. For example, Felicia Porter founded Womens Relief Society of the Confederate States out of her own home and then expanded throughout the Southern States. Many times though a woman that started volunteering as a nurse during the war started by Just caring and visiting a love one or friend in the hospital. (Parker, Sandra,V. , 1993) One Step Closer toa Professional Later on hospitals hired matrons (nurses) to help with the injured soldiers, but only in emergency situations. The matron was first established to manage the hospitals money for quality food and diet.

The Preservation of Endangered Species Essay Example

The Preservation of Endangered Species Essay Example The Preservation of Endangered Species Paper The Preservation of Endangered Species Paper One issue that has been a controversy is the preservation of endangered species. Ever since the 1960s, scientists have been fighting for laws and acts to protect animals and plants in keeping them in good health and their populations high in numbers. The problem is animals and plants are having trouble surviving in todays world which leads them to be classified as endangered or threatened. Endangered, meaning animals or plants with little population that the species could soon become extinct and threatened is less severe and basically just means that they are close to becoming endangered. By species becoming endangered, this affects our habitats biodiversity. Today, however, human beings are dependent for their food, health, well-being and enjoyment of life on fundamental biological systems and processes. Humans derive all of its food and many medicines and industrial products from the wild and without biological diversity these actions could not take place. Overall, major concern is stressed over this topic not only for species well-being, but for our strength and our environment. The law has a major impact on life sciences. Many acts and laws have been passed and through the years even revised to help benefit the species. The first act is a major act in dealing with this subject . The Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966 and the Endangered Species Conservation act of 1969 was to demonstrate the stress on trying to protect endangered species. Although they werent that effective. So on December 28, 1973, Richard M. Nixon signs the Endangered Species Act, which leads to the rise of environmental protection legislation. This law makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered or threatened species unless it is used for an approved scientific purpose or to enhance the survival of the species. Also the endangered species on this list cannot be hunted , killed, collected, or injured in the United States. This law is said to be the toughest environmental law. Of course that isnt the only law that affected or aided conservation. The convention of International Trade in Endangered Species, also known as CITES was amended in 1975. As of 1993, it was signed by 120 countries and lists 675 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products because they are endangered or threatened. Another recent act is the Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Act of 1994. The US congress passed this to provide resources to conservations programs focused on saving these endangered species. This year Congress should be making a revisable copy and figure out the spending on these animals. There are many other acts like the African Elephant Conservation Act of 1988 which is to assist the conservation and protection of African elephants. The Lacey Act of 1990, which prohibits import, export, transportation, sale, or purchase of fish, wildlife, or plants that are taken in violation of any Federal, State, tribal or foreign law. And lastly there is the Eagle Protection Act which began in 1940. This act makes it unlawful to import, export, take, sell, purchase, or barter any bald eagle or golden eagle, even if its just their parts. All of these acts are dealing with this issue directly, which is not the case all the time. Many laws are put into effect for another issue but indirectly help the preservations of animals and plants. One example would be the Clean Air Act of 1990. It was amended in 1970. This act was to place limits on industrial pollutants that cause acid rain, called for reductions in toxic and carcinogenic chemicals released by U. S. factories and reduction in automobile emissions; included reductions of 50 percent in industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, 70 percent in carbon monoxide from automobiles, and 20 percent in other emissions; 250 toxic chemicals were to be monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency; and industries would be required to use the best technology to prevent such wastes. The reason for this act was pollution but it does help out endangered species. It helps their health which helps their population grow. Although its not a subject you hear about all the time in the media or just in everyday conversation, but the percentages of endangered animals and endangered species are high. One-fourth of the worlds species of mammals are threatened with extinction. Half of that number may be gone in a decade. . There is 77 species of Cetacea, 4 species of Sirenia, 113 species of primates and 99 species or Carnivora are included. From 1970 to 1993 the number for United States only species on the Endangered and Threatened list grew about eight times bigger from 92 to 775. Up to 100 species become extinct every day. Scientists estimate that the total number of species lost each year may climb to 40,000 by the year 2000, a rate far exceeding any in the last 65 million years. Most of these facts are just focusing on the endangerment of animals. But there is an alarming number of 19,000 plant species that are endangered too. Plants are just as important to preserve for they are part of our biodiversity also. There are many reasons for the cause of endangerment. One main reason is mankind destruction. The environment is always changing but when it is a natural change, individuals adapt. When the pace of change of the habitat is greatly accelerated, there may be no time for the species to react to the new circumstances. Such human activities as pollution, drainage of wetlands, conversion of shrub lands to grazing lands, cutting and clearing of forests, urbanization, coral-reef destruction, and road and dam construction have destroyed or seriously damaged and fragmented available habitats. This is the reason that rapid habitat loss is regarded as the main cause of endangerment. Another cause could be an introduction of an exotic species. When a foreign species intentionally or accidentally is introduced in a new setting it will cause problems to the native species. Such problems may be preying or competition. A third reason is overexploitation. This refers to the utilization of the species at a rate that would make them endangered. Other factors are involved in the cause for this but these are the main reasons. Knowing what causes endangerment is a major key to helping the situation. This not only helps environmentalists but Congress and legislators in making decisions and actions that could contribute in making laws to stop endangerment. Many acts were passed to help the preservation of species, but everyday issues are discussed and new laws are underway. This is essential in helping species and our environment in being beneficial. If law was not conveyed, then every animal and plant would be extinct, which would lead to the extinction of humans. Many current issues are always being discussed in United States legislation and in other countries. Japan is again at war with conservationists over proposals to resume trading in whales, elephant ivory and marine turtles. Canada unveiled its first-ever bill designed to protect endangered species from extinction on April 11, a measure that would impose stiff fines and prison sentences on those guilty of harming rare flora and fauna. In the United States, a current issue was when President Clintons $1. 84 trillion budget for fiscal year 2001, includes a record $250 million increase for the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. These are just a couple of issues that have been discussed and that have been in the environmental law spotlight. Everyday there are current event issues that have new legislation pending. The most current one is the National Marine Fisheries Service is scheduled to complete its study of ways to save endangered salmon and trout population in the Columbia river system, including a controversial proposal to breach four hydroelectric dams on the lower Snake River. An important issue is always ways to help. There are many things that people can do to help wildlife. To people this might not seem like its worth their time but even helping out locally, in the neighborhood, really ends up helping nationally. Finding groups that are working to conserve or rehabilitate our habitat to join, recycle and reuse, write to local politicians, consider a career in wildlife, or volunteer to assists groups in endangered species projects. A simple but effective way to help endangered species to survive is by joining clubs that aim to protect and conserve nature and wildlife. By giving them a small amount on a frequent basis you support them and make it possible for them to set up campaigns, reservations etc. Many organizations having been fighting and been very successful in getting laws passed. Some of these organizations are Green peace, WWF (World Wide Fund For Nature), Conservation International, and The Nature Conversancy. Some of these are non-political but they do have one thing in common, which is to help endangered species. Life Science and the law is a topic that shouldnt be taken so lightly. It effects not only animals and plants but the earths biodiversity which affects humans. It is also known as environmental law. By having these laws and acts, it helps preservation. Plants and animals hold medicinal, agricultural, ecological, commercial, and recreational value. By protecting then future generations can experience presence and value. I leave with this quote which helps sum up the importance of the of conservation. We are all one. Birds, plants, animals, minerals we are all different manifestations of the same essential energy. Our way ahead, our searches and dreams are the molecular expression of the life experience of everything that makes up our planet. By caring for it, we will help each other to grow. Alejandro Lerner, Alejandro Lerner is an Argentinean writer and composer Bibliography 1) Dubay, Denis. Environmental Science. ed. 3 vols. GeoSystems Global Corporation, 1999. 2) Gwinn, Robert. The New Encyclopedia Britannica. ed. 15 vols. , 1992. 3) Bryant, Peter. Endangered Species Conservation Online, April 12, 2000. 4) Tuerek, Karen. Protecting Endangered Species: A Citizenss Alert for Legislative Action Online, April 2000 5) Environmental News Network. Online. enn. com. Accessed April 14, 2000

Anti discriminatory practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Anti discriminatory practice - Essay Example It can be direct, as when a particular group is adversely targeted, or indirect, when one group is given preferential treatment to the detriment of another group. Discrimination can occur on an individual plane or as institutionalized discrimination, in which the organization itself is structured against particular groups (Webb, 2004). Discrimination can be based on gender, sexual orientation, age, race, religion and disability. Gender discrimination is widely prevalent, from female infanticide to glass ceilings in the corporate world. It is seen in employment policies which are biased against women in recruitment, sexual harassment in the workplace, resentment against pregnancy and maternity leave, fewer chances for promotion and training and unequal pay scales. Stereotypes about career choices persist: nursing and cleaning for women, engineering and construction for men!!! Outside the workplace, it extends to obstacles in securing mortgages or loans and housing (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2005). Discrimination based on sexual orientation usually takes the form of subtle or overt intimidation, hostility and humiliation of lesbians, homosexuals and bisexuals and unfair treatment in cases of recruitment, promotion and dismissal. Age discrimination is seen in all aspects of society, from mandatory retirement ag es at work, elder abuse at home, substandard treatment from public health and social care services, to the lack of supportive infrastructure in public places and on transport (Help the Aged, 2007). Racial discrimination is based of colour, nationality and ethnicity and is inarguably the most high profile issue in discrimination (the recent ‘Big Brother’ episode on television being a case in point!). Racist abuse and harassment, lack of equal access to the best educational facilities and outright physical violence, particularly in the contemporary social climate of post 11/9 terrorism, are prevalent. In many cases, religious

According to contract law, can the injured party claim damages for Essay

According to contract law, can the injured party claim damages for every loss which is caused by a breach of contract Discuss, with reference to case law - Essay Example The victim has choices. The victim may avow the agreement or accept the repudiatory breach and consider the agreement as at an end. For contracts apart from sale of goods contracts, an individual, having full breach knowledge, is perceived to affirm the contract where he decides to go on with it in any case (Png, & Stanford University, p342). The obligation to repudiate in such a scenario is finally mislaid. The responsible individual may, of course, still consider bringing an act in damages for the breach and repudiate the contract for all breaches in future. Mitigation: the party that brings the claim cannot in any way be compensated for any loss arising from his part which he may have overcome by taking the necessary actions. This is termed as the duty to mitigate. Two limbs exists in duty to mitigate which usually arise after the breach has taken place: The party complaining about contract breach should take sensible steps in order to minimize her loss; the expenses incurred in taking such steps may also be compensated, and the complainant must not take unrealistic steps that increases the amount of loss. Causation; the complainant about contract breach must prove on a scale of probabilities that the loss was as result of the breach. In most occasions, the court will often first look at what would have occurred ‘but for’ the breach. If this technique will not bare fruits in terms of having certain finding, the court will be left with the option to consider ‘lost chance’ methodology which considers any chances for what may have taken place. Remoteness; whichever loss that has occurred should not be too remote the prove recovery process to be futile. This means that damages must arise in accordance to normal happenings arising from contract breach itself or may sensibly be ought to have been in the contemplation of the involved parties when the contract was made. Hadley v

What are the main roles that the United Nations plays in international Essay

What are the main roles that the United Nations plays in international politics To what extent is it successful, and how should that success be gauged - Essay Example Economic instability and imperialistic tendencies led to WWI and WWII, a fact not lost on the founding nations of the UN. The Security Council, the most influential component of the UN is responsible for preserving international security. Comprised of 15 member nations, five of which, the UK, US, Russia, China and France are permanent members, the Security Council convenes whenever it considers a threat to world peace exists. The UN General Assembly, all member nations, gathers at regular intervals to deliberate international problems (â€Å"The United Nations†, 2007). Recent and continuing issues addressed by the UN include alleviating world hunger and disease, reducing child deaths, protecting the civil rights, language and culture of indigenous peoples of the world and confronting global warming, AIDS, the genocide in Sudan, victims of natural disasters and war crimes among many other topics (UN News Service, 2007). No one can debate that the formation of the UN has provided relief and stabilisation for millions of the world’s population over the past 60 years. However, many rightfully question the ability of this international organisation to successfully manage present and future adverse scenarios. The power of the UN to stop imperialist actions was put in serious doubt when it could not stop the US from invading a sovereign country that did not initiate military conflict. The genocide in Darfur, Sudan was ignored until just recently and many thousands of children worldwide die from starvation every day. In addition, globalization has gone far beyond the scope of what could have been imagined in 1945. â€Å"Globalization has also created new vulnerabilities to old threats. Criminal networks take advantage of the most advanced technologies to traffic around the world in drugs, arms, precious metals and stones even people† (â€Å"We the

Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) in Australia

Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) in Australia Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): NCDs are a group of non-infectious diseases that progress slowly from their onset and prevail for longer duration. The four main NCDs responsible for world-wide deaths are cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), Cancer, Chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes. According to the â€Å"World Health Organization (WHO) global statistics report†, more than 36 million deaths have been recorded in the year 2008 because of NCDs. These deaths can be prevented by reducing the risk factors such as tobacco and alcohol consumption, healthy diet with moderate to vigorous physical activity. The four major NCDs combined together are responsible for 84% of death in 2008 globally. This assignment deals with CVDs, their prevalence in Australia and the population approaches that the country has taken towards prevention and control of CVDs. This assignment also deals with the future strategies that can be followed to further decrease the prevalence of CVDS. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs): CVDs are associated with heart and blood vessels related to the heart. The most common NCD prevalent in Australia are Coronary Heart disease, Myocardial Infarction, Heart failure and Stroke. According to WHO, CVDs has become the major cause of death estimating about 17 million deaths worldwide in the year 2008 and are a major contributor towards global economic burden. Cardiovascular diseases and Australia: Even though Australia is a high income country, it is also affected because of NCD’s with 35% cardiovascular disease death rate in 2008. 2008 Australian mortality estimates: Adopted from WHO – NCD country profiles, 2011 CVDs ranks first in causing death and disability responsible for nearly 17% of disease burden in 2003. In 2008, more than 50,000 deaths have been recorded because of CVD. There is a strong linkage between CVD and other NCDs such as diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD) due to their common risk factors which is also a major reason for the increase in death. Even though the mortality rates have declined over the past 20 years, CVDs are a continuous threat to the Australian population. In 2011, a death estimation of 31% was recorded which clearly denotes a decrease in death rate when compared to the 2008 death estimates of over 35%. CVDs are expensive to treat. Over $5.9 billion were spent on CVDs from total healthcare expenditure in 2004-2005. This accounts for 11% of total healthcare expenditure. Even though death rates are decreased, 482,000 hospitalizations were recorded in 2009/10 and 12% increase in hospitalization is seen from 1999 to 2010. CVDs prevalence increases with an increase in age. This increase is due to hospitalisation care for elderly and their improved life expectancy. After hospitalization and onset of CVDs, a decline in people’s life quality occurs. Long term cardiovascular diseases are reported in 35% of people between the ages 55-64 while 64% are reported in case of individuals above 75 years. Risk factors: The risk factors associated with CVDs can be classified as modifiable/behavioural risk factors and non-modifiable/genetic risk factors. Age, family history, gender and ethnicity are the genetic risk factors whereas increased tobacco and alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, socio-economic status and poor nutrition are the modifiable risk factors. There are biomedical conditions such as increased blood pressure (BP), increased cholesterol, overweight, kidney disorders, diabetes which are also risk factors for the prevalence of CVDs. The modifiable risk factors can be controlled by changing the behavioural pattern such as increased physical activity, reduction in tobacco and alcohol consumption and healthy dietary pattern. This change decreases the occurrence of CVD in all populations. Physical inactivity in Australia: Physical activity improves health and decreases the effect of CVDs and its risk factors. Increased benefit is seen when vigorous physical activity is followed compared to walking. According to National Health Survey (NHS), nearly 70% of Australian population comes under low level of physical activity. Here, the physical activity is measured based on the value obtained by multiplying physical activity in last two weeks, average time spent and intensity. Intensity is substituted by 3.5 for normal walking, 5.0 for moderate activity and 7.5 for vigorous exercise. Physical activity (PA) differs with age. There is a 57% rise in physical activity in individuals aged above 75 yrs and a reduced physical activity of 27% is recorded in 15-20 year individuals. This is due to obesity, low socio-economic status and education. 4.4% of participants from a study conducted on 2,298 Australian resulted in obesity being the reason for physical inactivity. Poor health, lack of knowledge and skills, time and use of private vehicles serve as individual factors for less PA. Low socio-economic population have reduced access to supportive environments because of high cost entry fees. Unhealthy diet in Australia: A diet with high fat, dairy products and high salt causes CVDs. Data from National Health Service (NHS) of Australia for the year 2007-08 reported that 46% of Australian population consumed whole fat milk, 49% consumed skimmed milk and the remaining 5% fell under no milk consumption category. Diet rich in fibre, fresh fruits, and vegetables are recommended as healthy dietary pattern. Diet with high fruits and vegetables are recorded as age increases. 65.7% the Australian population aged 15-24 consume low fruits while only 34.6% the population aged 75 and above consume inadequate fruits. NHS reports that a decreasing trend is seen in the consumption of healthy diet in all Australian populations from 2004. This decline in healthy diet is due to socio-economic status, ethnicity and place of living. 54% of low socio-economic individuals consume inadequate fruits compared to 47% of the individuals with high economic status due to cost. In case of welfare dependent families, a healthy diet consumes about 40% of their total income which is also a reason for increase in unhealthy diet in Australia. Based on ethnicity, 71% of indigenous population consumed low fruits compared to Australians. Tobacco consumption in Australia: Increased tobacco use is a major factor for CVDs prevalence due to the presence of toxic substance called nicotine and cadmium. According to Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), the percentage of tobacco consumption has been reduced in Australia from 1994 to 2007 from 29% to 19% in the age group above 14 years. It has been reported that the percentages of individuals who smoke daily were 26% in 1993 which reduced to 17% in 2003 and 16% in 2007. This decrease in smoking trend from 1980 till present is because of smoke-free environment, occupational status, increase in price of tobacco, banning the promotion of tobacco sale and restriction of tobacco availability based on age factor. Increased alcohol consumption in Australia: Excessive alcohol consumption contributes towards occurrence of CVDs. High level of alcohol intake increases blood pressure, blood triglycerides and cholesterol thus increasing the chances of cardiovascular occurrences. According to National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2010, a decrease in alcohol consumption from 8.1% to 7.2% is seen from 2007 to 2010. More than 26,000 individuals above 12 years participated in the National Drug Strategy Household Survey and their knowledge, alcohol and drug consumption histories and related behaviours were recorded. According to 2011-12 estimates, more than 29% adult males and 10% females have had more than two standards drink fixed by National Health and Medical Research Council. High blood pressure in Australia: High blood pressure increases the force on arterial walls of the heart and is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The prevalence of high blood pressure among 25 years of above Australians in 1999-2000 was 30% which is similar to the prevalence in 1995 which was 31%. A 12 year follow-up of the Australian diabetes, obesity and lifestyle study, 1999-2000 (AUSDIAB) conducted in the year 2012 reported that 3% of total population develop high blood pressure every year. 50% high risk prevails among smoking men population in Australia. High blood cholesterol in Australia: High cholesterol is common among elderly Australian population aged 55-64 years. 50% of rural Australian population have high cholesterol rate than urban population (47%). Prevention strategies: Unhealthy diet, increased alcohol consumption, smoking and physical inactivity are not only responsible for the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases but also for the burden caused by other non-communicable diseases. The Australian government along with non-government organizations created population-level prevention strategies to reduce the risk factors which reduce the country’s NCDs burden. Population-level initiatives currently active in Australia: Based on WHO 2005, the following population-level strategies are followed in Australia to reduce the prevalence of the risk factors. Laws, regulations, taxation and pricing interventions Improved built environment Public awareness campaigns Tobacco control: Since 1980’s, significant improvement in public health can be seen through awareness programmes, laws and regulations. Evidence proves that promotion of tobacco encourages adolescent population to uptake smoking. So, Tobacco prohibition Act, 1992 was passed to ban any forms of advertisement. According to Quit Victoria 2008, sponsorship by tobacco companies is also banned in return for any type of publicity. From 2006, 30% of the front and 90% of the back of cigarette packets are filled with health warnings. Smoke free environment have been present in Australia from 1986. All the Australian states have smoke-free hospital campus and vehicles. With time and place restriction to smoke, decrease in amount of smokers and passive smokers have been recorded. Presence of tobacco outlets near schools has been prohibited. Laws have been passes in all the states and territories of Australia prohibiting the sale of tobacco and cigarettes to individuals less than 18 years of age. Taxation on tobacco products was introduced in 1901 and was revised between 1993 and 1995. Based on consumer index, an increase in taxation prevails. This taxation reduced the tobacco purchase among adolescents, also increasing the government revenue. Awareness and campaigns resulted in a change in attitude among Australian smokers with a significant decrease in smoking prevalence. Alcohol control: Excessive alcohol consumption on a single occasion alters the triglyceride and cholesterol level in blood resulting in intoxication. The National Alcohol strategy, 2006-09 aimed at reducing harmful effects of alcohol consumption. The National binge drinking strategy-2008 existed to reduce alcohol intoxication among young Australians aged below 25 years through campaigns and supplying grants. Every state in Australia has separate alcohol control strategy according to which alcohol is a legal drug with restrictions on its manufacture, supply, promotion and consumption. Alcohol licensing laws were established which restricts the trading hours, quantity and premises. These have been successful by reducing the hospitalization, crime and injury with public involvement. Declaring the legal drinking age to be 18, increasing the price and tax, appropriate labelling standards and mature advertising standard without appealing youths prevented increased alcohol consumption. The Good Sports program by the Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) initiates safe and healthier communities by reducing the alcohol promotion in sport clubs. Managing physical inactivity and poor diet: Regular physical activity and healthy nutrition maintains good health thereby reducing CVDs. National level population approaches such as â€Å"Healthy weight for adults and older Australians 2006-10† focuses on weight management through social-marketing campaigns and education on physical activity as well as healthy food preferences. The â€Å"Health Weight, 2008† is another national level approach that focuses on youths and their family’s health management. The â€Å"Australian physical activity† guidelines are established by the Department of Health (DoHA) for 5-12 years as well as 12-18 years. The National Heart Foundation of Australia recommends minimum 30 minutes of physical activity for individuals with stable CVDs and a progressive physical activity for people with advanced CVDs (Briffa et al. 2006). Physical activity depends on built environment. The Australian Local Government, Heart Foundation of Australia and Planning Institute of Australia pro vide guidelines on how to develop built environment with physical activity sites. According to Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ 2002), appropriate labelling of foods specifying the nutritional standards is necessary. The â€Å"Healthy Weight† is an Australian government managed website on how to maintain a healthy lifestyle. â€Å"Get set 4 Life – Habits for Healthy Kids† targets physical activity and healthy eating among 4 year old kids. Future strategies and goals: Even though 35% mortality is seen because of CVDs, the possibility of reducing it even more in Australia is challenging since a progress to control CVDs has already been achieved. Measurement data’s such as incidences for the risk factors are important to prevent future cardiovascular mortality rates. Currently, limited data exists regarding CVDs. Most of the data’s are from the AusDiab cohort studies. Further studies should exist to measure incidence as well as to determine the efficiency of prevailing population level strategies. The impact of these prevention strategies on health outcomes are also to be measured. Clinical guidelines are present to monitor the CVDs events (NHMRC, 2005) but extra studies are required to find whether the guidelines are active in all states. International guidelines from other countries (example, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in United Kingdom) can be useful. It is necessary to concentrate more on the social and e nvironment factors as well as in-depth analysis to verify the success rate of population-level initiatives. WHOs targets for control of NCDs and the likelihood of these targets happening in Australia include: Decreasing the NCDs mortality rate: 25% relative reduction in the overall mortality rates within a time span of 15 years. This is possible by preventing the premature deaths through the control of risk factors. By 2018, the Australian government also aims at increasing the life expectancy in indigenous children population under 5 years. Smoking tobacco: 40% relative reduction from the current prevalence by 2025. From the 2010 National Drug Strategy Survey, 15.1% of individuals aged 14 years and above smoke daily. By this target, a daily smoking percentage of 10.6% can be achieved. Alcohol consumption: 10% relative reduction of alcohol consumption by 2025. Physical Activity: Inclusion of 30 minutes moderate physical activity per week in the adult population. A target of 15% increase in the proportion of individuals participating in such physical activity by 2015. Healthy diet – reduction in salt and trans-fat: Reducing the mean population consumption of salt to 5gms per day. This is hard to achieve since it requires laws and legislation to completely eliminate trans-fat. Instead of a total elimination, reduction in usage of fatty acids in foods can be achieved. Conclusion: Australia has already achieved a target to reduce the burden caused by NCDs. Considering the present situation, it is possible to reduce the risk factors rather than eliminating them completely. The above mentioned targets along with effective medication and lifestyle changes successfully will reduce the current prevalence of risk factors and NCDs burden in Australia.

Macbeth - Tragedy Or Satire :: essays research papers

William Shakespeare wrote four great tragedies, the last of which was written in 1606 and titled Macbeth. This "tragedy", as it is considered by societal critics of yesterday's literary world, scrutinizes the evil dimension of conflict, offering a dark and gloomy atmosphere of a world dominated by the powers ofdarkness. Macbeth, more so than any of Shakespeare's other tragic protagonists, has to face the powers and decide: should he succumb or should he resist? Macbeth understands the reasons for resisting evil and yet he proceeds with a disastrous plan, instigated by the prophecies of the three Weird Sisters. Thus we must ask the question: If Macbeth is acting on the impulses stimulated by the prophecies of his fate, is this Shakespearean work of art really a Tragedy? Aristotle, one of the greatest men in the history of human thought, interpreted Tragedy as a genre aimed to present a heightened and harmonious imitation of nature, and, in particular, those aspects of nature that touch most closely upon human life. This I think Macbeth attains. However, Aristotle adds a few conditions. According to Aristotle, a tragedy must have six parts: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and song. Most important is the plot, the structure of the incidents. Tragedy is not an imitation of men, but of action and life. It is by men's actions that they acquire happiness or sadness. Aristotle stated, in response to Plato, that tragedy produces a healthful effect on the human character through a katharsis, a "proper purgation" of "pity and terror." A successful tragedy, then, exploits and appeals at the start to two basic emotions: fear and pity. Tragedy deals with the element of evil, with what we least want and most fear to face, and with what is destructive to human life and values. It also draws out our ability to sympathize with the tragic character, feeling some of the impact of the evil ourselves. Does Macbeth succeed at this level? Can the reader feel pity and terror for Macbeth? Or does the reader feel that Macbeth himself is merely a branch from the root of all evil and not the poor, forsaken, fate-sunken man, according to Aristotle's idea of tragedy, he is supposed to portray? Can the reader "purge" his emotions of pity and fear by placing himself in the chains of fate Macbeth has been imprisoned in? Or does he feel the power and greed upon which Macbeth thrives, prospers, and finally falls?